Rhetoric   

and escaped it safely. For there are two reasons why human beings face
danger calmly: they may have no experience of it, or they may have
means to deal with it: thus when in danger at sea people may feel
confident about what will happen either because they have no
experience of bad weather, or because their experience gives them the
means of dealing with it. We also feel confident whenever there is
nothing to terrify other people like ourselves, or people weaker than
ourselves, or people than whom we believe ourselves to be stronger-and
we believe this if we have conquered them, or conquered others who are
as strong as they are, or stronger. Also if we believe ourselves
superior to our rivals in the number and importance of the advantages
that make men formidable-wealth, physical strength, strong bodies of
supporters, extensive territory, and the possession of all, or the
most important, appliances of war. Also if we have wronged no one, or
not many, or not those of whom we are afraid; and generally, if our
relations with the gods are satisfactory, as will be shown especially
by signs and oracles. The fact is that anger makes us confident-that
anger is excited by our knowledge that we are not the wrongers but the
wronged, and that the divine power is always supposed to be on the
side of the wronged. Also when, at the outset of an enterprise, we
believe that we cannot and shall not fail, or that we shall succeed
completely.-So much for the causes of fear and confidence.
Part 6
We now turn to Shame and Shamelessness; what follows will explain the
things that cause these feelings, and the persons before whom, and the
states of mind under which, they are felt. Shame may be defined as
pain or disturbance in regard to bad things, whether present, past, or
future, which seem likely to involve us in discredit; and
shamelessness as contempt or indifference in regard to these same bad
things. If this definition be granted, it follows that we feel shame
at such bad things as we think are disgraceful to ourselves or to
those we care for. These evils are, in the first place, those due to
moral badness. Such are throwing away one's shield or taking to
flight; for these bad things are due to cowardice. Also, withholding a
deposit or otherwise wronging people about money; for these acts are
due to injustice. Also, having carnal intercourse with forbidden
persons, at wrong times, or in wrong places; for these things are due
to licentiousness. Also, making profit in petty or disgraceful ways,
or out of helpless persons, e.g. the poor, or the dead-whence the
proverb 'He would pick a corpse's pocket'; for all this is due to low
greed and meanness. Also, in money matters, giving less help than you
might, or none at all, or accepting help from those worse off than
yourself; so also borrowing when it will seem like begging; begging
when it will seem like asking the return of a favour; asking such a
return when it will seem like begging; praising a man in order that it
may seem like begging; and going on begging in spite of failure: all
such actions are tokens of meanness. Also, praising people to their
face, and praising extravagantly a man's good points and glozing over
his weaknesses, and showing extravagant sympathy with his grief when
you are in his presence, and all that sort of thing; all this shows
the disposition of a flatterer. Also, refusing to endure hardships
that are endured by people who are older, more delicately brought up,
of higher rank, or generally less capable of endurance than ourselves:
for all this shows effeminacy. Also, accepting benefits, especially
accepting them often, from another man, and then abusing him for
conferring them: all this shows a mean, ignoble disposition. Also,
talking incessantly about yourself, making loud professions, and
appropriating the merits of others; for this is due to boastfulness.
The same is true of the actions due to any of the other forms of
badness of moral character, of the tokens of such badness, &c.: they
are all disgraceful and shameless. Another sort of bad thing at which
we feel shame is, lacking a share in the honourable things shared by
every one else, or by all or nearly all who are like ourselves. By
'those like ourselves' I mean those of our own race or country or age