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every problem that is to be set down as dialectical: for no one in his
senses would make a proposition of what no one holds, nor yet make a
problem of what is obvious to everybody or to most people: for the
latter admits of no doubt, while to the former no one would assent.
Now a dialectical proposition consists in asking something that is
held by all men or by most men or by the philosophers, i.e. either by
all, or by most, or by the most notable of these, provided it be not
contrary to the general opinion; for a man would probably assent to
the view of the philosophers, if it be not contrary to the opinions of
most men. Dialectical propositions also include views which are like
those generally accepted; also propositions which contradict the
contraries of opinions that are taken to be generally accepted, and
also all opinions that are in accordance with the recognized arts.
Thus, supposing it to be a general opinion that the knowledge of
contraries is the same, it might probably pass for a general opinion
also that the perception of contraries is the same: also, supposing it
to be a general opinion that there is but one single science of
grammar, it might pass for a general opinion that there is but one
science of flute-playing as well, whereas, if it be a general opinion
that there is more than one science of grammar, it might pass for a
general opinion that there is more than one science of flute-playing
as well: for all these seem to be alike and akin. Likewise, also,
propositions contradicting the contraries of general opinions will
pass as general opinions: for if it be a general opinion that one
ought to do good to one's friends, it will also be a general opinion
that one ought not to do them harm. Here, that one ought to do harm to
one's friends is contrary to the general view, and that one ought not
to do them harm is the contradictory of that contrary. Likewise also,
if one ought to do good to one's friends, one ought not to do good to
one's enemies: this too is the contradictory of the view contrary to
the general view; the contrary being that one ought to do good to
one's enemies. Likewise, also, in other cases. Also, on comparison, it
will look like a general opinion that the contrary predicate belongs
to the contrary subject: e.g. if one ought to do good to one's
friends, one ought also to do evil to one's enemies. it might appear
also as if doing good to one's friends were a contrary to doing evil
to one's enemies: but whether this is or is not so in reality as well
will be stated in the course of the discussion upon contraries.
Clearly also, all opinions that are in accordance with the arts are
dialectical propositions; for people are likely to assent to the views
held by those who have made a study of these things, e.g. on a
question of medicine they will agree with the doctor, and on a
question of geometry with the geometrician; and likewise also in other
cases.
Part 11
A dialectical problem is a subject of inquiry that contributes either
to choice and avoidance, or to truth and knowledge, and that either by
itself, or as a help to the solution of some other such problem. It
must, moreover, be something on which either people hold no opinion
either way, or the masses hold a contrary opinion to the philosophers,
or the philosophers to the masses, or each of them among themselves.
For some problems it is useful to know with a view to choice or
avoidance, e.g. whether pleasure is to be chosen or not, while some it
is useful to know merely with a view to knowledge, e.g. whether the
universe is eternal or not: others, again, are not useful in and by
themselves for either of these purposes, but yet help us in regard to
some such problems; for there are many things which we do not wish to
know in and by themselves, but for the sake of other things, in order
that through them we may come to know something else. Problems also
include questions in regard to which reasonings conflict (the
difficulty then being whether so-and so is so or not, there being
convincing arguments for both views); others also in regard to which
we have no argument because they are so vast, and we find it difficult
to give our reasons, e.g. the question whether the universe is eternal